VIOLENCE BY INTIMATE PARTNERS

Introduction

Intimate partner violence(IPV) occurs in all countries, irrespective of social, economic, religious or cultural group. Although women can be violent in relationships with men, and violence is also sometimes found in same-sex partnerships, the overwhelming burden of partner violence is borne by women at the hands of men. For that reason, this writing will deal with the question of violence by men against their female partners. Women’s organizations around the world have long drawn attention to violence against women, and to intimate partner violence in particular. Through their efforts, violence against women has now become an issue of international concern. Initially viewed largely as a human rights issue, partner violence is increasingly seen as an important public health problem.

IPV refers to any behaviour within an intimate relationship that causes physical, psychological or sexual harm to those in the relationship. Such behaviour includes:

•  Acts of physical aggression – such as slapping, hitting, kicking and beating.
•  Psychological abuse – such as intimidation, constant belittling and humiliating.
•  Forced intercourse and other forms of sexual coercion.
• Various controlling behaviours – such as isolating a person from their family and friends, monitoring their movements, and restricting their access   to  information or assistance.

When abuse occurs repeatedly in the same relationship, the phenomenon is often referred to as‘‘battering’’.

A wide range of studies from both industrialized and developing countries have produced a remarkably consistent list of events that are said to trigger partner violence. These include:

• —not obeying the man;
• —arguing back;
• —not having food ready on time;
• —not caring adequately for the children or home;
• —questioning the man about money or girlfriends;
• —going somewhere without the man’s per-mission;
• —refusing the man sex;
• —the man suspecting the woman of infidelity.

In many developing countries, women often agree with the idea that men have the right to discipline their wives, if necessary by force.

What are the risk factors for intimate partner violence?

Individual factors

Family poverty in childhood and adolescence, low academic achievement and aggressive delinquency at the age of 15 years all strongly predicted physical abuse of partners by men at the age of 21 years.

History of violence in family

It is found that rates of abuse are higher among women whose husbands have either themselves been beaten as children or have witnessed their mothers being beaten. Although men who physically abuse their wives frequently have violence in their background, not all boys who witness or suffer abuse grow up tobecome abusive themselves. 

Alcohol use by men

Another risk marker for partner violence that appears especially consistent across different settings is alcohol use by men. Alcohol use or excessive drinking is a risk factor for partner violence found a significant association.

Relationship factor

At an interpersonal level, the most consistent marker to emerge for partner violence is marital conflict or discord in the relationship. Marital conflict is moderately to strongly related to partner assault by men. That is verbal marital conflict remains significantly related to physical assault of the wife.

Community factors

A high socioeconomic status has generally been found to offer some protection against the risk of physical violence against an intimate partner, although exceptions do exist. Studies from a wide range of settings show that, while physical violence against partners cuts across all socio-economic groups, women living in poverty are disproportionately affected. It is as yet unclearwhy poverty increases the risk of violence – whether it is because of low income in itself or because of other factors that accompany poverty, such as overcrowding or hopelessness. For some men, living in poverty is likely to generate stress, frustration and a sense of inadequacy for having failed to live up to their culturally expected roleof providers. It may also work by providing ready material for marital disagreements or by making it more difficult for women to leave violent or other wise unsatisfactory relationships. Whatever the precise mechanisms, it is probable that poverty acts as a ‘‘marker’’ for a variety of social conditions that combine to increase the risk faced by women.

Societal factors

Research studies across cultures have come up with a number of societal and cultural factors that might give rise to higher levels of violence. Levinson, for example, suggests that wife beating occurs more often in societies in which men have economic and decision-making power in the household, where women do not have easy access to divorce, and where adults routinely resort to violence to resolve their conflicts. The second strongest predictor in this study of the frequency of wife beating was the absence of all-women workgroups. Levinson advances the hypothesis that the presence of female workgroups offers protection from wife beating because they providewomenwith a stable source of social support as well as economic independence from their husbands and families.

The consequences of intimate partner violence

The consequences of abuse are profound, extending beyond the health and happiness of individuals to affect the well being of entire communities. Living in a violent relationship affects a woman’s sense of self esteem and her ability to participate in the world. Studies have shown that abused women are routinely restricted in the way they can gain access to information and services, take part in public life, and receive emotional support from friends and relatives. Not surprisingly, such women are often unable properly to look after themselves and their children or to pursue jobs and careers.

Physical

• Abdominal/thoracic injuries
• Bruises and welts
• Chronic pain syndromes
• Disability
• Fibromyalgia
• Fractures
• Gastrointestinal disorders
• Irritable bowel syndrome
• Lacerations and abrasions
• Ocular damage
• Reduced physical functioning

Sexual and reproductive

• Gynaecological disorders
• Infertility
• Pelvic inflammatory disease
• Pregnancy complications/miscarriage
• Sexual dysfunction
• Sexually transmitted diseases, including HIV/AIDS
• Unsafe abortion
• Unwanted pregnancy

Psychological and behavioural

• Alcohol and drug abuse
• Depression and anxiety
• Eating and sleep disorders
• Feelings of shame and guilt
• Phobias and panic disorder
• Physical inactivity
• Poor self-esteem
• Post-traumatic stress disorder
• Psychosomatic disorders
• Smoking
• Suicidal behaviour and self-harm
• Unsafe sexual behaviour

Fatal health consequences

• AIDS-related mortality
• Maternal mortality
• Homicide
• Suicide

Economic impact of violence

In addition to its human costs, violence places an enormous economic burden on societies in terms of lost productivity and increased use of social services.

Impact on children

Children who witness marital violence are at a higher risk for a whole range of emotional and behavioural problems, including anxiety, depression, poor school performance, low self-esteem, disobedience, nightmares and physical health complaints.

Ways to prevent IPV

Intimate partner violence is a serious problem that has lasting harmful effects on individuals, families, and communities. The goal for IPV prevention is to stop it from happening in the first place. However, the solutions are just as complex as the problem. Prevention efforts should ultimately reduce the occurrence of intimate partner violence through the promotion of healthy, respectful, nonviolent relationships. Prevention efforts should attempt to promote healthy relationships by addressing change at all levels of the social ecology that influence IPV: individual, relationship, community, and society. Additionally, effective prevention efforts will attempt to reduce known risk factors for IPV and promote protective factors.

Violence by intimate partners is an important public health problem. Resolving it requires the involve-ment of many sectors working together at commu-nity, national and international levels. At each level, responses must include empowering women and girls, reaching out to men, providing for the needs of victims and increasing the penalties for abusers. It is vital that responses should involve children and young people, and focus on changing community and societal norms. The progress made in each of these areas will be the key to achieving global reductions in violence against intimate partners.

                           

                                    (WITH THE HELP OF WHO PUBLICATIONS)